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Gorksi(2013)为什么你应去在乎【批判实在论】?(吕炳强译)

吕炳强 Sociological理论大缸 2019-09-03

选译自Gorski, Philip.2013. “What is Critical Realism? And Why Should You Care?” Contemporary Sociology 42:658-70.

译者:吕炳强,香港理工大学应用社会科学系首席讲师荣休。香港大学文学士(1972)、伦敦大学理硕士(1974)。硕士毕业至今,前22年花在统计学和人口学等教学、大学行政以及社会、教育、房屋等应用研究上。后归真返璞,专注于理论社会学,并将以此业终老。理论社会学著作有《凝视、行动与社会世界》(2007)、《我思、我们信任,社会之奥秘》(2009)、《听与说 社会学电邮集 2012-2013》(2015)等。

 


选段一:目前強勢的哲學是實證主義。它的最古老對手是詮釋主義。新秀是社會建構主義。此三取向建基在很不同的社會存在論(即社會實在的諸理論)。實證主義者們在自然和社會的事體之間不作存在論區分;二者只是「現象」或「經驗對象」。詮釋主義者們在此二領域之間畫上清𥇦分界;他們辯稱社會實在是由(通過)語言建構的。建構主義者們更甚。他們視諸自然科學也是由(通過)語言建構的。在他們而言,諸自然科學不過是社會生活的另一國度。(...The dominant philosophy is positivism. Its oldest rival is interpretivism. The young upstart is social constructivism. The three approaches are premised onvery different social ontologies (i.e., theories of social reality).Positivists draw no ontological distinction between natural and socialentities; both are just “phenomena” or “objects of experience”. Interpretivists draw a sharpline between the two domains; they argue that social reality islinguistically constructed. The constructivists go further still. They see the natural sciences as linguistically constituted as well. For them, the natural sciences are just another realm of social life.


选段二:現在讓我們鑽深一點,進入實證主義和詮釋主義的根底假定,看看它們有多錯誤。實證主義預設而且其實是要求科學知識採取「普通律」或「覆蓋律」的形式——普遍的和不容例外的陳述足以令我們能夠預測和控制事件。有而且只有如此的定律,一種「證偽主義的」方法才行得通。若非如此,一個單一的反事例便不足以邏輯地推翻一個理論。(...let us now drill down a little bit deeper into underlying assumptions ofpositivism and interpretivism to see just how mistaken they are. Positivism presupposes and indeed requires that scientific knowledge take the form of “general” or “covering laws”—universal and exceptionless statements that enableus to predict and control events. If and only if there are such laws will a “falsificationist” method apply. Otherwise, a single counter-instance will notbe logically sufficient to refute a theory.)


选段三:詮釋主義的強版本(錯誤地)接受了實證主義對自然科學的說法,卻(正確地)堅持這說法對於諸社會科學是說不通的。它們反駁:自然生活也許是由定律所管轄,但社會生活是由意義所管轄的。它們因而論定:社會科學的目的和方法跟自然科學的那一套截然不同。社會科學運用詮釋論手段來追求個殊的知識。它們不企圖解釋在社會世界裡發生的東西,只通過重建意義和意向來促使它可以被明白。(Strong versions of interpretivism have (wrongly) accepted the positivistic account ofnatural science but (rightly) insisted that it does not obtain for the social sciences. Natural life may be governed by laws, they counter, but social life is governed by meanings. Thus, they conclude, the aims and methods of the social sciences are radically different from those of the natural sciences. The social sciences pursue idiographic knowledge by hermeneutic means. They do not attempt to explain what happens in the social world, only to render it comprehensible by reconstructing meaning and intention. )


选段四:建構主義的強版本把這辯稱推得更遠;它們同意社會生活是語言學地建構的。但是它們相信自然科學只不過是社會生活的另一部分一它也是由(非人格的)「論述」和「力量」所管轄的。根據這種看法在社會學和文學之間或在一些極端說法中的量子物理學和阿贊德部落的巫術之間,並無真的差異。換言之,社會建構主義者擁抱知識相對主義的非常強的版本。他們說:我所有人都是被網羅在我們自己特殊一套的「故事」和「語言遊戲」之中,並無「真實的」或「中立的」基礎讓我們在它們之間評說。(Strong versions of constructivism pushed this argument even further; they agree that social life is linguistically constituted. But they believe that natural science is just another part of social life—that it, too, is governed by (impersonal) “discourses” and “powers.” On this view, there is no real difference between, say, sociological and literary theory, or in some extreme formulations, between quantum physics and Azande magic. In other words, social constructionists embrace a very strong form of epistemic relativism. They say we are all so enmeshed in our own particular set of “stories” and “language games,” that there is just no “real” or “neutral” basis for adjudicationbetween them. ...


选段五:這三個理論位置都得面臨一個問題,即現在只有不多的社會研究者會嚴肅地願意為它們的任何一個辯護。...The problem with all three of these positions is that few social researchers would be seriously willing to defend any of them nowadays. ...


选段六:儘管實證主義和詮釋主義對社會科學的願景可以很不同,帕斯卡爾指出二者其實是共享對自然科學的同一理解。不幸,此理解是頗錯誤的。其實,物理科學在實際上也沒有搞出如實證主義一類的「覆蓋律」。科學知識亦非基於對經驗事件(empirical events)的被動式觀察。自然科學做得最多的是孤立因果機制,所用手段是主動地幹預世界(亦稱「實驗」)從而(通過「儀器」)產生對世界的間接觀察。注意,即使天文學這個唯一的主要例外也證明了這個規則:它看來是牽涉及一個封閉的系統,即是宇宙。(As different as the positivist and interpretivist visions of social science maybe, Bhaskar notes, both actually share a common understanding of natural science. Unfortunately, ... this understanding is quite mistaken. In reality,even the physical sciences do not actually generate “covering laws” of the positivist sort. Nor is scientific knowledge based on a passive observation of empirical events. What the natural sciences mostly do is isolate causal mechanisms by means of active interventions into the world (a.k.a.“experiments”) that produce indirect observations of the world (via “instruments”). Note that the one major exception, astronomy, merely proves the rule: it seems to involve a closed system, namely, the universe.)


选段七:社會科學家們之所以無法發現任何「覆蓋律」,正是由於他們做不到實驗的封閉。還有別的理由。由於諸社會結構倚賴於人之活動和文化,它比物理結構在空時上的變動程度遠遠更大。人之天性(humannature)或看似例外,方法學個人主義在社會科學中因而是吸引力長存。但演化生物學教導我們,行為之可塑性(plasticity)是人類的一個區分性特徵。(One reason why social scientists have been unable to discover any “covering laws”is that they cannot achieve experimental closure. There are others as well. Because social structures are dependent upon human activity and culture, they vary over space and time to a far greater degree than physical structures.Human nature might seem an exception, whence the perennial appeal of methodological individualism in the social sciences. But evolutionary biology teaches us that a high degree of behavioral plasticity is a distinguishing characteristic of the human species. )


选段八:而且,社會結構不光是眾多個別個人(individual persons)的簡單集合(simple aggregation),方法學個人主義的失敗因而長存。社會結構還有交互主體的(例如,文化的)和物質的(例如,由人製造的)組成成分。還有,它們通常都有迸生屬性(emergentproperties),是個別的諸行動者所不具有的。社會科學的起源系於發現了迸生,它們的重大進步典型比牽涉到迸出屬性(例如,關於經濟市場的、社會階級的、集體意識(collectiveconscience)、價值範圍(value spheres)、社會場域(socialfields)等等)的發現。(Furthermore, social structures are more than asimple aggregation of individual persons, whence the perennial failures of methodological individualism in the social sciences. Social structures alsohave inter-subjective (e.g., cultural) and material (e.g., artifactual)components. Further, they generally have emergent properties not possessed byindividual actors. The genesis of the social sciences hinged on the discovery of emergence, and major advances in them have typically involved the discoveryof emergent properties (e.g., of economic markets, social classes, collective conscience, value spheres, social fields, and so on).


选段九:人類社會抗拒實驗的封閉的努力,第四個也是最後一個理由是:人之存在(humanbeings)本身就是開放系統,有能力去溝通、創作和抵抗。那些為了控制行為而創造出來的封閉系統(集權政權和集中營)的最不擇手段的努力最終會倒塌,其中一個理由在此。在社會科學中,實驗化之所以(我希望)永遠不會扮演它在物理科學裡的角色,理由也在此。(A fourth and final reason why human societies defy efforts at experimental closure is that human beings are themselves open systems capable of communication and creativity and resistance. This may be one reason why eventhe most ruthless efforts to control behavior by creating closed systems (e.g.,totalitarian regimes and concentration camps) have ultimately foundered. And this is why experimentation will (hopefully) never play the sort of role insocial science that it does in physical science.


选段十:帕斯卡爾的第一本書A Realist Theory of Science主要是關於自然科學的,在此書描述自己的取向為「超驗實在論」。他是在鬆散的康德意味上意指如此的提問:「自然世界要像啥模樣,自然科學才是它現在這個模樣?」在一般意味上,這取向在是「實在論式」的,它以一個「獨立于心靈」的自然(界)作為自然科學一個基礎的「可能性的條件」。但在「批判」意味上,它也是實在論式的,它視科學為一種由人類語言和社會力量中介(如非決定)的人類活動。(...His first book, A Realist Theory of Science, mostly concerning natural science, is where he describes hisapproach as “transcendental realism.” He means “transcendental” in the looselyKantian sense that asks: “What would the natural world have to be like fornatural science to be the way that it is?” It is “realist” in the generic sensethat it takes a “mind-independent” nature as a fundamental “condition of possibility” for natural science. But it is also realist in the “critical”sense   that   it  sees   science   as a human activity that is inevitably mediated (if not determined) by human language and social power.


选段十一:話說回來,韋伯一個世紀前已指出:現代科學的基礎特徵之一是專門化,而且是不斷增加的專門化。為何如此?帕斯卡爾想:若是學科是多層的,每一學科負責某一尺度或層面的實在,這便部分地反映了世界本身的實在結構。換言之,若實在能在多樣的時空尺度上成功研讀,以及物理和生物的科學若是彼此相對自主,這至少是部分因為自然實際上就是如此以多階層和多領域組織起來的。(Now, as Weber noted a century ago, one of the basic characteristics of modern scienceis specialization and ever-increasing specialization. Why is this? ... Bhaskar thinks ... If there is a hierarchy of disciplines, each charged with a certainscale or level of reality, then this partly reflects the real structure of the world itself. In other words, if reality can be successfully studied at avariety of different spatio-temporal scales, and if the physical and biological sciences are relatively autonomous from one another, then this is at least partly because nature is actually organized that way, into different strata anddomains.


选段十二:科學歷史上的一個持久面目是競逐還原(reduction)。這些競逐能夠也確實帶來認識論上的收穫,尤其是當它們發現了新的副階層(substrata)。但它們總是不變地無法達到它們的認識論目標,即:以更低階層來解釋實在的一個階層。為什麼?因為有「迸生」(emergence)。在實在的一個層面的事體和屬性的組合和互動在其它階層上生成「迸生的」事體和屬性。社會世界充塞著這種迸生的結構。社會科學的一個任務——其實是它們的首要任務——是描述它們的諸運行。(Another persistent feature of the history of science is campaigns of reduction.These  campaigns can and do bring epistemic gains, especially when they discover new substrata. But they invariably fall short of their epistemic goals: to explain one strata of reality in terms of a lower-order one. Why? Because of “emergence.” The combination and interaction of entities and properties at one level of reality generates “emergent” entities and properties at others.  ⋯The social world is rife with emergent structures of this sort. One task of thesocial sciences—their principal task really—is to describe their workings.


选段十三:現代科學的第三個重要特徵是:知識隨時日而增長。超驗實在論提議:如果自然是分層的和諸階層是迸生的,科學知識會通過發現前所未知的階層(例如,量子層面)、諸事體(希格斯玻色(Higgs-Boson))以至它們之間的互相作用(例如,分子遺傳學)而增長。但這不可能是故事的全部。科學的歷史充滿跳躍和斷裂。帕斯卡爾因而畫下科學的「不可及」和「可及」二維度之間、一個如其所是的自然世界和我們對它而有的不斷改變的諸概念之間的區分。批判實在論明白到諸存在論都會出錯。(A third important feature of modern science ... is the growth of knowledge over time.... Transcendental realism suggests ... If nature is stratified and strata areemergent, then scientific knowledge will grow via the discovery of previously unknown strata (e.g., the quantum level), entities (the Higgs-Boson), andinteractions between them (e.g., molecular genetics). But this cannot be thewhole story. ... the history of science is full of leaps and breaks ... Bhaskar therefore draws a distinction between the “intransitive” and “transitive”dimensions of science, between a natural world as it really is and our changingconcepts of it. ... CR understands that ontologies are fallible.


选段十四:現代科學的第四個面目是:它所發現的因果定律看來在我們所經驗的感覺世界(sensibleworld)中行不通,即使我們大部分時間都感覺這個世界是相對有序和可明白的。帕斯卡爾鼓吹說:「細想一下如我們所知的這個世界,看來是在這世界裡事物都全面發生和做得成,我們且有本事以諸多方式去解釋它們。然而,若以推演地證成的預測(deductively-justified prediction)來對付它們,即使可能,也不易做到。它是能動者(agents)的世界,至少在表面上看,只是個不完整地被描述的世界。它的一切都不是由自然的任何定律來描述。或者更令人驚訝的是,它的一切看來都不是由這些定律所管轄(governed)。真的,我的筆的走向並不違反物理學的任何定律,但也不是由其中任何一條所決定(determined)。(A fourth feature of modern science is that the causal laws it discovers do notseem to obtain in the sensible world as we experience it, even if we mostlyexperience this world as relatively orderly and intelligible. “Reflect for amoment on the world as we know it,” Bhaskar urges: “It seems to be a world inwhich all manner of things happen and are done, which we are capable ofexplaining in various ways, and yet for which a deductively-justified prediction is seldom, if ever, possible. It seems, on the face of it at least,to be an incompletely described world of agents. ... Now none of this isdescribed by any laws of nature. More shockingly perhaps none of it seems even governed by them. It is true that the path of my pen does not violate any laws of physics. But it is not determined by any either”


选段十五:我們該因此而完全放棄因果定律的意念(notion)嗎?實證主義界定因果定律為「可觀察到的事件」之間的「恒常聚合」,肯定說,我們應放棄這樣的定義。帕斯卡爾提議我們界定因果定律為「規範式陳述」(normicstatements),是關於特殊的「能動者」或「事體」的「力量」和「傾向」的。這些能動者和力量——不是關於它們以邏輯上的「命題」一一才是科學的首要物件。再者,由於能動者和力量分作多層,可觀察的事件就會有「被片塊化「(laminated)的性格;它們在各個層面上同時被規範式定律所管轄。這對於因果推論有著重要的後果。一特殊行動不違反一特殊定律是事實,但僅僅這個事實並不意味著前者完全是由後者決定。因此,好的因果推論倚靠邏輯的規則少於倚靠我們對結構的知識。

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)


选段十六:在他的第二本書The Possibility of Naturalism,帕斯卡爾引入了一有用的區分:三個「存有論領域」(ontologicaldomains),即「真實的」(real)、「表存的」(actual)、「經驗的」(empirical)。他進而澄清定律和可觀察的事件之間的關係。真有的領域是由所有存在於世界裡的「機制」,就是說,由所有的各種層面和各種類型的事體連同它們的各種力量和各種傾向組成的。真實的領域是由所有的曾被啟動——雖或未曾被觀察——的機制組成的。最後,實證的領域是由所有的曾被啟動和觀察的機制組成的。注意:在日常經驗裡,這三個領域通常昊「不同相」(out ofphase)。一個科學實驗的真正目的是把它們帶「進同相」(into phase),由此啟動、孤立和觀察一特殊事體或階層的力量和傾向。如此一來,實驗真的是揭露諸定律。但是這些定律管轄事體而非事件,它們描述傾向而非規律(regularities)。

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)


选段十七:帕斯卡爾特徵化他自己的觀點為「批判自然主義」。僅以它排斥自然科學和社會科學之間的截然分界,它是「自然主義的」。僅以它排斥任何把社會這回事還原為自然這回事,它是「批判的」。正是如此,它避開了詮釋主義和建構主義的缺陷。什麼缺陷呢?帕斯卡爾辯稱:詮釋主義和建構主義若不是明顯地預設便是暗地裡保留二元論(dualism)的一些強形式。

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)


选段十八:建構主義又如何?它典型地它排出一個二元論觀點,是關於人類的。一方面,它對待人如對待物,有時暗地通過「書寫」(writing)、「銘寫」(inscribing)和「建構」(constructing)其肉身,有時明裡……另一方面,它想像他們是脫離了肉身(disembodied)的力量,有能「自我打扮」(self-fashioning)、「自主」(autonomy)、「表演」(performance),諸如此類。這兩個觀點如何可以彼此合拍?真的,不能,而自康徳起,從來不能。批判自然主義不會生成這種二律背反。至於誇子和人應有頗為不同的屬性和力量,批判實在論對此毫不驚訝;它們占住實在的完全不同的階層上。肉身和自我,或是腦袋和心靈,也從未給批判實在論製造出任何基礎的或弄不清楚的難題;後者只不過是從前者迸生出來而已。

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)


选段十九:就詮釋主義這個案,此二元論是典型地認識論的。它預設我們對人(persons)能有所知,而對非人(non-persons)卻無法得知。例如,我們能夠知道人的思想或意向,卻不知夸克(quarks )的。巴斯卡指說:這是個範疇錯誤(categorical mistake)。誇子和人之間的差異是在存在論上而非認識論上。它關涉到誇子和人的特定的屬性和力量,而非我們對它們能有的知識種類。誇子或者沒有思想和意向,但人也沒有「旋」(spin)和味(flavor)。拆解人的思想比誇子的旋容易嗎?不一定!

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)


选段二十:自然和社會之間的存在論差異,導致自然科學和社會科學之間的一個認識論差異:我們只有是通過人類的活動和概念、它們生成的物質痕跡和人造物品,來觀察社會結構。(就大約得這點點,詮釋主義者是對的:社會物理學是個空夢。)與自然實在不同,社會實在不是獨立于人類的心靈。在一個個人的心靈中的社會地圖至好也是不完全的,而且是經常被弄錯的,有時是系統地便是如此,因為有些社會結構必須是被誤解方得到再生產。一個社會結構的準確的概念化(conceptualization)必須是由多重的視角縫接起來而成,從其中它首先冒出來。再者,「獨立於它」並不暗指「被它窮盡」。社會結構的金木水火土也包括物質事體和人造物品,諸如「耕地」和「行政大樓」;它們不光是由人們組成的。相反地,也是自相矛盾地,它們也包括已死的人們,通過身心的努力和創意,他們的能動性和意向在諸社會結構裡「活下去」。說「社會結構不是獨立于人類的心靈和活動」,不是等於說「這心靈」或「那活動」「就在此處」或「就在此刻」。

(注:字数太多,最后几段的英文不贴出来了)



(Sociological理论大缸第71期)

【批判实在论-译文-合辑】已结束

【第69-71期】吕炳强、万毓泽和刘忠魏翻译【巴斯卡与批判实在论】三篇(预告)

【第70期】悼念 Roy Bhaskar(1944-2014)【万毓泽翻译】

【第69期】【9名学者联名】什么是批判实在论(Critical Realism)【刘忠魏译】?


感谢吕炳强、万毓泽和刘忠魏老师惠赠译稿!!!



链接:


——已推送相关的

第13期“涌现”这么回事:物质性人造事实与社会结构

第11期本土博士生如何出版英语专著?—万毓泽老师的经验

第6期听Smith一席话,再(不)学批判实在论


——社会学“黑历史”专辑

第68期 【再造祖先】“社会学之父”是14世纪的阿拉伯人Ibn Khaldun?

第67期【德国社会学】“历史风范”是怎么衰落的?内斗、纳粹/流亡与美帝

第66期【美国社会学】的“实证范”真的是天生吗?福特主义的“共谋”


——机制解释/因果性合辑

第55-57期【找机制、要机制、反机制】三篇推送预告

第57期“我们需要的不仅是机制!”—阐释论的不满与反攻

第56期民族志也能【做出】机制式因果解释?实用主义回答

第55期别太抽象理论、别太微观行动,快告诉我【机制】到底要怎么找!

第47期别想抛弃“覆盖律”!分析社会学“机制解释”的真相

第17期社会学里的因果关系有几种?



图片来源:《四重奏》第4集


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